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A1 Spanish grammar
8 units, 35 lessons, and 105 focused skills with explanations, practice, checkpoints, and review.
Spanish grammar
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A2 · Published course
A2 Spanish grammar
10 units, 40 lessons, and 120 focused skills with explanations, practice, checkpoints, and review.
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B1 Spanish grammar
10 units, 40 lessons, and 120 focused skills with explanations, practice, checkpoints, and review.
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B2 Spanish grammar
10 units, 40 lessons, and 120 focused skills with explanations, practice, checkpoints, and review.
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C1 Spanish grammar
10 units, 40 lessons, and 120 focused skills with explanations, practice, checkpoints, and review.
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C2 Spanish grammar
10 units, 40 lessons, and 120 focused skills with explanations, practice, checkpoints, and review.
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A1 grammarSubject pronounsLearn Spanish subject pronouns such as yo, tú, él, ella, nosotros and ustedes, with clear examples and interactive practice.A1 grammarSer for identityLearn how beginners use ser for identity, origin, nationality, and professions, with examples, common mistakes, and practice.A1 grammarBasic word orderLearn basic Spanish word order for affirmative sentences, omitted subjects, and common time expressions.A1 grammarBasic negationLearn Spanish negation with no before the verb, plus beginner patterns using nunca, nada, and tampoco.A1 grammarSpanish articlesLearn how Spanish definite and indefinite articles agree with noun gender and number, with beginner examples and practice.A1 grammarNoun genderLearn Spanish noun gender through common endings, useful exceptions, and the articles that reveal whether a noun is masculine or feminine.A1 grammarPlural nounsLearn how to form Spanish plural nouns with -s and -es, change words ending in z, and match plural articles correctly.A1 grammarHayLearn how hay in Spanish expresses there is and there are, which articles follow it, and how to make questions and negative statements.A1 grammarRegular -ar verbsLearn Spanish AR verbs in the present tense by finding the stem and matching singular and plural endings to each subject.A1 grammarRegular -er verbsLearn Spanish ER verbs in the present tense with the regular endings -o, -es, -e, -emos, -éis, and -en.A1 grammarRegular -ir verbsLearn Spanish IR verbs in the present tense and see where their endings match or differ from regular -er verbs.A1 grammarQuestions and question wordsLearn Spanish question words such as qué, dónde, cuándo, quién, and cómo, plus the punctuation and patterns used for basic questions.A1 grammarEstar for location and stateLearn how to use estar for location, feelings, and temporary conditions, with the essential present-tense forms and beginner examples.A1 grammarSer vs estarUnderstand ser vs estar through identity, origin, location, feelings, conditions, and descriptions whose meaning changes with the verb.A1 grammarTener expressionsLearn common tener expressions for age, hunger, thirst, temperature, fear, needs, and tener que plus an infinitive.A1 grammarPrepositions of placeLearn Spanish prepositions of place including en, encima de, debajo de, delante de, detrás de, cerca de, and al lado de.A1 grammarAdjective gender agreementLearn Spanish adjective gender agreement with masculine and feminine forms, adjectives ending in -e, and useful consonant-ending patterns.A1 grammarAdjective number agreementLearn Spanish adjective number agreement by adding -s or -es and matching every adjective to a singular or plural noun.A1 grammarAdjective placementLearn Spanish adjective placement, including the normal position after a noun and common beginner adjectives that appear before it.A1 grammarPossessive adjectivesLearn Spanish possessive adjectives and match mi, tu, su, nuestro, and vuestro to the things being possessed.A1 grammarDemonstrative adjectivesLearn Spanish demonstrative adjectives for things near the speaker, near the listener, or farther away, with complete gender and number agreement.A1 grammarIrLearn how to use ir in Spanish, choose its irregular present forms, and connect destinations with a or al.A1 grammarTener in the presentLearn the irregular present forms of tener, express possession, and distinguish tener from hay.A1 grammarHacerLearn how to use hacer in Spanish for doing, making, weather expressions, and common everyday activities.A1 grammarQuerer and poderUse querer and poder with infinitives, learn their present stem changes, and build useful requests and plans.A1 grammarVenirLearn how to use venir in Spanish, choose its irregular present forms, and say where someone comes from or comes with you.A1 grammarGustarLearn how gustar works with indirect object pronouns, singular and plural things, and clarifying phrases.A1 grammarReflexive pronounsLearn Spanish reflexive pronouns and match me, te, se, nos, and os to the person performing an action on themselves.A1 grammarDaily-routine verbsUse common Spanish daily routine verbs such as levantarse, ducharse, vestirse, and acostarse in short sentences.A1 grammarTelling timeLearn telling time in Spanish with es la, son las, minutes past and to the hour, and schedule expressions.A1 grammarIr a + infinitiveUse ir a plus an infinitive to talk about plans and actions that are going to happen.A1 grammarBasic prepositionsLearn basic Spanish prepositions for direction, origin, location, company, and simple movement or exchange.A1 grammarBasic comparisonsBuild Spanish comparisons with más que, menos que, tan como, and the common forms mejor and peor.A1 grammarDirect object pronounsReplace repeated direct objects with lo, la, los, or las and place the pronoun correctly in a basic sentence.A1 grammarConnecting wordsConnect simple Spanish ideas with porque, pero, también, and tampoco while keeping positive and negative agreement clear.A2 grammarStem-changing verbsLearn the common e→ie, o→ue, and e→i present-tense changes and when the verb stem stays unchanged.A2 grammarIrregular yo formsLearn high-frequency irregular first-person forms such as hago, conozco, escojo, and oigo.A2 grammarMore irregular present verbsPractise decir, poner, salir, traer, oír, saber, and dar in useful present-tense sentences.A2 grammarSer and ir in the preteriteLearn fui, fuiste, fue, fuimos, fuisteis, and fueron and use context to distinguish ser from ir.A2 grammarIrregular preteritePractise the irregular preterite stems and endings of tener, estar, hacer, poder, poner, and venir.A2 grammarPreterite time expressionsUse ayer, anoche, la semana pasada, hace dos días, and sequence markers with completed past actions.A2 grammarIrregular imperfectLearn era, iba, and veía across the persons and use them in simple past descriptions.A2 grammarPresent perfectBuild the Spanish present perfect with he, has, ha, hemos, habéis, han and a past participle.A2 grammarIrregular past participlesLearn common participles such as hecho, dicho, visto, escrito, puesto, abierto, and vuelto.A2 grammarPresent-perfect markersUse present-connected time expressions such as hoy, esta semana, ya, todavía no, nunca, and alguna vez.A2 grammarPresent perfect or preteriteChoose between a past event connected to now and an event placed in a finished past period.A2 grammarIndirect object pronounsUse Spanish indirect object pronouns to show who receives or benefits from an action.A2 grammarDirect and indirect objectsIdentify what is given or affected and who receives it before choosing the correct pronouns.A2 grammarSe lo combinationsReplace le or les with se before lo, la, los, or las and keep the recipient clear from context.A2 grammarObject pronoun placementPlace pronouns before conjugated verbs or attach them to infinitives, gerunds, and affirmative commands.A2 grammarAffirmative tú commandsForm regular affirmative tú commands and use them for friendly instructions and directions.A2 grammarIrregular affirmative commandsLearn the common irregular affirmative tú commands di, haz, ve, pon, sal, sé, ten, and ven.A2 grammarUsted and ustedes commandsUse common usted and ustedes command forms for polite, formal, or plural instructions.A2 grammarObligation expressionsExpress personal obligation, general necessity, and advice with tener que, hay que, and deber.A2 grammarSpanish gerundForm regular and common irregular Spanish gerunds before using them in progressive expressions.A2 grammarEstar plus gerundUse estar plus a gerund for an action unfolding around a specific moment.A2 grammarBeginning, continuing, and endingUse empezar a, seguir plus gerund, dejar de, and acabar de to describe the stage of an action.A2 grammarInfinitive patternsKeep the second verb in the infinitive after a conjugated verb and after expressions such as antes de and después de.A2 grammarAlgo, nada, alguien, and nadieChoose Spanish indefinite and negative words for things and people and place them correctly in negative sentences.A2 grammarAlguno and ningunoUse algún, alguno, alguna, ningún, ninguno, and ninguna with the correct noun and sentence pattern.A2 grammarSpanish quantifiersExpress different amounts with common quantifiers and make adjective-like forms agree with nouns.A2 grammarQuantity comparisonsCompare quantities and actions using tanto como, más que, and menos que.A2 grammarRelative pronoun queUse que to identify a person or thing and combine two simple statements without repetition.A2 grammarPrepositional pronounsChoose pronouns after prepositions and use the special combinations conmigo and contigo.A2 grammarVerbs with prepositionsLearn dependable combinations such as aprender a, empezar a, dejar de, pensar en, and hablar de.A2 grammarArticles and referenceChoose definite, indefinite, or no article by considering whether a noun is identifiable, newly introduced, or used generally.A2 grammarPor vs paraChoose por for cause, route, exchange, or duration and para for destination, recipient, purpose, or deadline.A2 grammarTime connectorsConnect events and durations using cuando, antes de, después de, desde, desde hace, hace que, and hasta.A2 grammarCause, purpose, and resultConnect ideas with porque, por, para plus an infinitive, por eso, and entonces.A2 grammarReal conditions with siUse si plus the present indicative for real or likely conditions and practical results.B1 grammarPast perfectBuild había plus a past participle and place one completed action before another past event.B1 grammarPast progressiveUse imperfect estar plus a gerund for an action that was in progress around a past moment.B1 grammarSequence past eventsOrder a story with primero, mientras, de repente, después, al final, and tense choices that show event relationships.B1 grammarIrregular future stemsUse common shortened and changed stems while keeping the regular future endings.B1 grammarPredictions and promisesChoose the simple future when presenting a prediction, promise, or decision as a future claim.B1 grammarFuture of probabilityUse a future form to express a probability or guess about what is happening now.B1 grammarConditional tenseAttach conditional endings to the infinitive and use the tense for hypothetical results and softened statements.B1 grammarIrregular conditional stemsReuse the same irregular stems as the future with the regular conditional endings.B1 grammarPolite conditionalUse gustaría, podría, debería, and querría to soften requests and express advice or wishes.B1 grammarFuture in the pastUse the conditional for an event that was future from an earlier past viewpoint and for probability about the past.B1 grammarPresent subjunctiveStart from the present yo form, remove -o, and add the opposite-vowel subjunctive endings.B1 grammarIrregular subjunctiveLearn the fully irregular present subjunctive forms of ser, ir, haber, saber, estar, and dar.B1 grammarSubjunctive stem changesCarry present stem changes into the subjunctive and apply the special nosotros patterns of -ir verbs.B1 grammarIndicative or subjunctiveChoose the indicative for presented information and the subjunctive when a clause is framed through influence, reaction, doubt, or non-specific reference.B1 grammarWants and influenceUse the subjunctive after verbs of wanting, requesting, recommending, and influencing when subjects differ.B1 grammarEmotions and reactionsUse the subjunctive after expressions of happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, and annoyance about another clause.B1 grammarImpersonal judgmentsUse es importante que, es posible que, conviene que, and similar judgments with the subjunctive.B1 grammarDoubt and denialContrast affirmative belief with doubt, denial, and negated opinion to choose the mood.B1 grammarCuando and moodUse the indicative for habitual or completed events and the subjunctive for a pending future event.B1 grammarFuture time clausesChoose indicative or subjunctive according to whether a time-clause event is completed, habitual, or still pending.B1 grammarPara queUse para que plus the subjunctive when one subject acts so that another subject can achieve a purpose.B1 grammarOjalá and quizáExpress wishes and degrees of uncertainty with independent subjunctive clauses.B1 grammarRelative pronounsConnect descriptions to people, things, and places with an appropriate relative expression.B1 grammarMood in relative clausesUse the indicative for a specific known antecedent and the subjunctive for something unknown, non-specific, or denied.B1 grammarLo queUse lo que to mean what or the thing that when the antecedent is neutral or an entire idea.B1 grammarImpersonal seUse se with a third-person verb when the actor is general, unknown, or intentionally omitted.B1 grammarNegative tú commandsUse no plus a present subjunctive tú form to tell someone informally not to do something.B1 grammarCommands with pronounsAttach pronouns to affirmative commands and place them before negative commands in the correct order.B1 grammarNosotros commandsUse present subjunctive nosotros forms to suggest actions that include the speaker.B1 grammarCommand accent marksPreserve spoken stress when pronouns are attached by adding a written accent where Spanish spelling requires it.B1 grammarReal future conditionsUse present indicative after si and a future, command, or present result for likely future conditions.B1 grammarImperfect subjunctiveBuild the common -ra series from the third-person plural preterite and use it in basic present hypotheses.B1 grammarSecond conditionalCombine si plus the imperfect subjunctive with a conditional result for hypothetical present or future situations.B1 grammarContrast and result connectorsConnect an argument with aunque, sin embargo, a pesar de, por eso, así que, and de todos modos.B1 grammarDirect and reported speechChange quoted statements into reported clauses with decir que and appropriate person references.B1 grammarReported questionsReport yes-or-no and information questions without retaining direct-question word order or punctuation.B1 grammarReported commandsReport instructions with decir, pedir, or recomendar plus que and a subjunctive clause.B1 grammarReported-speech tense changesAfter a past reporting verb, shift present ideas toward the imperfect and future ideas toward the conditional when the viewpoint requires it.B2 grammarFuture perfectBuild the Spanish future perfect with the future of haber and a past participle, then use it for completed future actions and conjecture about the past.B2 grammarConditional perfectForm the Spanish conditional perfect and use it for unreal past results, missed possibilities, and unfulfilled preferences.B2 grammarPresent perfect subjunctiveUse haya plus a past participle for completed actions viewed through present reactions, doubt, evaluation, or a pending future reference point.B2 grammarPast perfect subjunctiveBuild the past perfect subjunctive with hubiera or hubiese and use it for earlier actions under a past trigger and unreal past conditions.B2 grammarThird conditionalCombine a past perfect subjunctive condition with a conditional-perfect result to explain unreal past situations and their imagined consequences.B2 grammarMixed conditionalsConnect an unreal past condition to a present result, or a contrary present situation to an unreal past result.B2 grammarConditional perfect for conjectureUse the conditional perfect to present an earlier event as inferred, attributed, or unconfirmed from a past or reported viewpoint.B2 grammarPast regrets with ojaláUse ojalá or si al menos with the past perfect subjunctive to express regret, criticism, and wishes about an unchangeable past.B2 grammarSubjunctive sequence of tensesChoose present, perfect, imperfect, or past-perfect subjunctive forms from the trigger's viewpoint and the dependent action's time.B2 grammarPast emotions and wishesUse imperfect or past-perfect subjunctive after past emotions and wishes, distinguishing simultaneous or later actions from earlier completed ones.B2 grammarReported requests in the pastReport past requests and commands while preserving speaker roles, distinguishing statements from instructions, and locating requested actions in time.B2 grammarInfinitive or que clauseChoose an infinitive for a shared or general subject and a finite que clause for an explicit second subject, including completed-action contrasts.B2 grammarPassive voice with serBuild the Spanish passive voice with a tense of ser, make the participle agree with the passive subject, and add an agent with por when it matters.B2 grammarPassive se and agreementBuild passive-se sentences with transitive verbs, make the verb agree with the grammatical subject, and use natural subject placement.B2 grammarPassive se or impersonal seDistinguish an agreeing passive subject from an unspecified human actor using transitivity, personal a, number agreement, and meaning.B2 grammarReformulate active and passive sentencesMove between active, ser-passive, passive-se, and impersonal structures while preserving tense, participants, meaning, and appropriate focus.B2 grammarThe relative possessive cuyoUse cuyo to connect a possessor to a following possessed noun, with agreement in gender and number and without an extra article or possessive.B2 grammarPrepositions with relative pronounsKeep the preposition required inside a relative clause and choose que, quien, or an article-based relative according to the antecedent, clarity, and register.B2 grammarEl cual, el que, and quienChoose among article-based relatives and quien by antecedent, punctuation, preposition, formality, and the need to make reference unambiguous.B2 grammarLo cual and whole-clause referenceUse neutral lo cual to comment on an entire preceding fact or proposition, especially in formal explanatory writing, without treating it as a noun-linked relative.B2 grammarAunque with indicative or subjunctiveChoose indicative for an asserted concession and subjunctive for hypothetical, pending, or deliberately backgrounded information.B2 grammarAdvanced concession clausesBuild nuanced concessions with por más que, aun cuando, incluso si, si bien, pese a que, and a pesar de que.B2 grammarCause clauses and speaker commitmentPresent causes as asserted explanations, frame them as shared information, or reject one explanation while supplying another.B2 grammarResult clausesExpress factual degree results, distinguish actual from intended consequences, and choose result connectors with the appropriate mood and register.B2 grammarAdvanced clitic doublingUse an object clitic together with an explicit noun phrase when Spanish grammar, information structure, emphasis, or clarity calls for both.B2 grammarAccidental seDescribe unintended or affected events with se, an indirect-object pronoun, and a verb agreeing with the thing involved.B2 grammarContrast the meanings of seDistinguish reflexive, reciprocal, pronominal, passive, impersonal, accidental, and indirect-object-replacement uses through syntax and meaning.B2 grammarLeísmo, laísmo, and loísmo awarenessRecognize standard object-pronoun roles, accepted person leísmo in parts of Spain, and regionally marked laísmo or loísmo without stigmatizing speakers.B2 grammarCompound tenses in reported speechBackshift compound forms when the reporting viewpoint requires it while preserving completion, sequence, and continuing relevance.B2 grammarMood in reported questionsKeep the interrogative core in the indicative while selecting subjunctive where an embedded wish, request, unknown antecedent, or deliberative meaning independently requires it.B2 grammarTime, place, and demonstrative shiftsRecalculate time, place, demonstratives, movement verbs, and personal reference from the reporter's actual viewpoint instead of applying automatic substitutions.B2 grammarSustained indirect narrationMaintain source, tense sequence, reference, and paragraph cohesion across several reported statements without repetitive or ambiguous reporting frames.B2 grammarAdvanced addition and contrastAdd, reinforce, counterbalance, and distinguish claims with connector families whose punctuation and register fit the relationship.B2 grammarCause and consequence connectorsConnect causes and consequences with noun phrases or clauses while controlling connotation, syntax, punctuation, and formal register.B2 grammarOrganize an argumentGuide readers through a thesis, ordered reasons, examples, counterpoints, and a conclusion without using connectors as interchangeable decoration.B2 grammarQualify and hedge claimsAdjust certainty, scope, and interpersonal force with probability expressions, impersonal frames, conditional forms, and explicit limits.B2 grammarFormal requests and recommendationsChoose conditional questions, impersonal frames, request verbs, and formal commands according to authority, distance, and the action requested.B2 grammarImpersonal formal registerUse impersonal se, passive se, ser passives, impersonal expressions, and institutional first-person forms to manage agency and tone.B2 grammarNominalization in formal SpanishTransform selected actions and qualities into noun phrases for compact formal writing while preserving participants, prepositions, and readable style.B2 grammarB2 grammar editing and reformulationDiagnose and revise advanced Spanish for tense and mood, reference and pronouns, cohesion, concision, and consistent register without changing meaning.C1 grammarAssertive verbs and moodChoose indicative or subjunctive according to whether an assertive expression presents information as established, attributes a claim, or explicitly withholds commitment.C1 grammarNegation, questions, and moodInterpret the scope and pragmatic force of negation and questions instead of treating either one as an automatic subjunctive trigger.C1 grammarFactive and evaluative clausesSeparate knowledge and recognition from emotional or value judgments so factual acceptance does not incorrectly force one mood in every clause.C1 grammarMeaning changes through mood choiceUse indicative and subjunctive as discourse choices that assert, background, reject, or soften the speaker's commitment to the same underlying proposition.C1 grammarNarrative tense shiftsShift deliberately among narrative time frames to foreground events, revisit earlier causes, and comment from a later viewpoint without losing temporal orientation.C1 grammarThe historical presentUse present forms inside past narration to foreground decisive events while keeping the original past time frame clear and controlled.C1 grammarStylistic uses of the imperfectRecognize and use the narrative, prospective, and imminent-action imperfect when a speaker adopts a viewpoint rather than merely describing habitual background.C1 grammarPerfect-aspect nuanceChoose perfect forms for prior situations that remain relevant to a viewpoint, and non-perfect forms when narration treats the situation as a bounded event or internal background.C1 grammarFuture forms as evidenceUse simple and perfect future forms to present conclusions inferred from current evidence while distinguishing inference from prediction and neutral fact.C1 grammarConditional forms as reported evidenceUse conditional forms to attribute unconfirmed present, future, or past information to a source without confusing reported evidence with hypothetical results.C1 grammarDeber de and probabilityUse deber de plus an infinitive to express inference, control its temporal viewpoint, and keep probabilistic meaning distinct from obligation.C1 grammarAdvanced modal periphrasesChoose among possibility, strong inference, approximation, and expected-outcome constructions to express precisely how evidence supports a conclusion.C1 grammarAdvanced time clausesCoordinate immediate succession, duration, and temporal boundaries across complex viewpoints with precise connectors and mood choices.C1 grammarC1 concession clausesExpress free-choice obstacles, reduced concessions, and formally acknowledged counterarguments without repeating the standard aunque contrast.C1 grammarException and condition clausesSet exceptions, sufficient conditions, warnings, and counterfactual enabling circumstances with precise connectors and mood.C1 grammarComparison and proportion clausesBuild correlated changes, hypothetical comparisons, and precise degree contrasts with the tense and mood required by the intended relationship.C1 grammarTopicalizationPlace established information at the left or right edge of a sentence while preserving clitic reference, contrast, and discourse continuity.C1 grammarFocus structuresMark corrective, contrastive, and exhaustive focus through placement, stress-sensitive structure, and explicit focus expressions.C1 grammarCleft sentencesUse ser clefts, pseudoclefts, and que-focused colloquial patterns to identify the focused participant, time, place, or reason.C1 grammarWord order for emphasisReorder subjects, objects, complements, and modifiers to manage given and new information without breaking clitic, agreement, or interpretation constraints.C1 grammarDiscourse deixisRefer precisely to earlier and upcoming sections, claims, and events with demonstratives and discourse-location expressions.C1 grammarAnaphora and referenceMaintain clear participant and proposition reference across sentences using pronouns, noun phrases, and strategic repetition.C1 grammarAdvanced relative linkingUse sentence relatives and prepositional relatives to connect complex information while preserving a clear antecedent and logical relation.C1 grammarEllipsis and substitutionAvoid unnecessary repetition through recoverable omission and substitutes while retaining agreement, contrast, and reference clarity.C1 grammarThe ethical dativeControl the ethical dative according to meaning, information structure, and register.C1 grammarAspectual seControl aspectual se according to meaning, information structure, and register.C1 grammarObject-pronoun duplicationControl object-pronoun duplication according to meaning, information structure, and register.C1 grammarComplex clitic orderControl complex clitic order according to meaning, information structure, and register.C1 grammarNominal styleManage information density with nominal groups while keeping actions, participants, logical relations, and agency clear.C1 grammarPassive and impersonal formal writingChoose active, passive, impersonal, or institutional voice according to information flow, genre, and the need to identify responsibility.C1 grammarAcademic hedging and stanceCalibrate the strength, scope, and evidential basis of academic claims without making them absolute, contradictory, or empty.C1 grammarReporting sources and claimsIntegrate sources with precise attribution, stance-bearing reporting verbs, coherent tense, and an explicit boundary between source and writer claims.C1 grammarReformulation connectorsRestate, define, correct, or distance a formulation with a connector that accurately signals the new version's relationship to the first.C1 grammarExemplification and clarificationDistinguish an example, a specification, an exhaustive list, and a clarifying aside through connector choice and punctuation.C1 grammarConcession and counterargumentAcknowledge a valid point, limit its force, and answer it with a proportionate counterargument instead of merely placing contrasting statements together.C1 grammarConclusion and synthesisClose an extended argument by summarizing, integrating, or deriving a conclusion without repeating mechanically or introducing unsupported evidence.C1 grammarResolve syntactic ambiguityDiagnose and revise ambiguous attachment, reference, and scope while retaining the intended emphasis and meaning.C1 grammarMaintain register consistencyKeep forms of address, vocabulary, sentence design, and institutional voice appropriate and coherent across a complete text.C1 grammarEdit cohesion and referenceRepair reference chains, connector logic, paragraph progression, repetition, and omission across extended Spanish prose.C1 grammarC1 grammar editing and reformulationEdit extended C1 texts by diagnosing meaning first, prioritizing consequential problems, and reformulating with precise grammar, cohesion, and register.C2 grammarDialectal mood variationInterpret and use dialectal mood variation according to meaning, region, audience, and register.C2 grammarRegional tense variationInterpret and use regional tense variation according to meaning, region, audience, and register.C2 grammarPronouns and forms of addressInterpret and use pronouns and forms of address according to meaning, region, audience, and register.C2 grammarAgreement variationInterpret and use agreement variation according to meaning, region, audience, and register.C2 grammarIrony, distance, and moodInterpret and produce irony, distance, and mood through grammar, discourse context, and register.C2 grammarEcho questionsInterpret and produce echo questions through grammar, discourse context, and register.C2 grammarPoliteness and mitigationInterpret and produce politeness and mitigation through grammar, discourse context, and register.C2 grammarCounterexpectationInterpret and produce counterexpectation through grammar, discourse context, and register.C2 grammarFree indirect styleInterpret and produce free indirect style while keeping viewpoint, time, and attribution recoverable.C2 grammarNarrative focalizationInterpret and produce narrative focalization while keeping viewpoint, time, and attribution recoverable.C2 grammarTemporal dislocationInterpret and produce temporal dislocation while keeping viewpoint, time, and attribution recoverable.C2 grammarLiterary tense choiceInterpret and produce literary tense choice while keeping viewpoint, time, and attribution recoverable.C2 grammarMarked word orderUse marked word order to guide topic, focus, scope, and processing in advanced Spanish.C2 grammarLeft and right dislocationUse left and right dislocation to guide topic, focus, scope, and processing in advanced Spanish.C2 grammarParenthetical structuresUse parenthetical structures to guide topic, focus, scope, and processing in advanced Spanish.C2 grammarSyntactic rhythmUse syntactic rhythm to guide topic, focus, scope, and processing in advanced Spanish.C2 grammarClause compressionInterpret, produce, and edit clause compression while preserving participants, logical relations, and scope.C2 grammarAbsolute participial structuresInterpret, produce, and edit absolute participial structures while preserving participants, logical relations, and scope.C2 grammarAdvanced gerund use and limitsInterpret, produce, and edit advanced gerund use and limits while preserving participants, logical relations, and scope.C2 grammarComplex nominal groupsInterpret, produce, and edit complex nominal groups while preserving participants, logical relations, and scope.C2 grammarLong-distance referenceControl long-distance reference across complex Spanish sentences and extended texts.C2 grammarReference ambiguityControl reference ambiguity across complex Spanish sentences and extended texts.C2 grammarStylistic relative-clause choiceControl stylistic relative-clause choice across complex Spanish sentences and extended texts.C2 grammarOmission and recoveryControl omission and recovery across complex Spanish sentences and extended texts.C2 grammarParallelismUse parallelism to shape emphasis, stance, contrast, and processing in advanced Spanish.C2 grammarRhetorical questionsUse rhetorical questions to shape emphasis, stance, contrast, and processing in advanced Spanish.C2 grammarEmphasis through repetitionUse emphasis through repetition to shape emphasis, stance, contrast, and processing in advanced Spanish.C2 grammarBalanced contrastUse balanced contrast to shape emphasis, stance, contrast, and processing in advanced Spanish.C2 grammarLegal and administrative styleAdapt grammar, information flow, attribution, and sentence design to legal and administrative style.C2 grammarAdvanced academic styleAdapt grammar, information flow, attribution, and sentence design to advanced academic style.C2 grammarJournalistic styleAdapt grammar, information flow, attribution, and sentence design to journalistic style.C2 grammarAdvanced conversational styleAdapt grammar, information flow, attribution, and sentence design to advanced conversational style.C2 grammarDequeísmo and queísmoEvaluate and edit dequeísmo and queísmo according to construction, meaning, variation, and genre.C2 grammarAgreement edge casesEvaluate and edit agreement edge cases according to construction, meaning, variation, and genre.C2 grammarAdvanced preposition selectionEvaluate and edit advanced preposition selection according to construction, meaning, variation, and genre.C2 grammarPunctuation and syntaxEvaluate and edit punctuation and syntax according to construction, meaning, variation, and genre.C2 grammarMeaning-preserving transformationApply meaning-preserving transformation while preserving exact meaning, stance, responsibility, and genre purpose.C2 grammarPrecision and economyApply precision and economy while preserving exact meaning, stance, responsibility, and genre purpose.C2 grammarControlled ambiguityApply controlled ambiguity while preserving exact meaning, stance, responsibility, and genre purpose.C2 grammarC2 style editing and reformulationApply c2 style editing and reformulation while preserving exact meaning, stance, responsibility, and genre purpose.